The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples is adopted by the United Nations General Assembly.

The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) is a landmark international instrument that establishes a universal framework of minimum standards for the survival, dignity, well-being, and rights of Indigenous peoples. It was adopted by the UN General Assembly on September 13, 2007, after decades of negotiation and advocacy by Indigenous groups and human rights organizations.

Self-determination: Indigenous peoples have the right to freely determine their political status and pursue their economic, social, and cultural development.
Cultural Rights: It emphasizes the right to maintain and strengthen their distinct political, legal, economic, social, and cultural institutions while retaining their customs, traditions, and languages.
Land and Resources: Indigenous peoples have the right to their traditional lands, territories, and resources, including protection from forced displacement. This also covers the right to give or withhold consent for projects affecting their lands (Free, Prior, and Informed Consent – FPIC).
Non-discrimination: The declaration affirms that Indigenous peoples should not be subject to discrimination in any form.
Participation: Indigenous peoples have the right to participate in decision-making on matters that would affect their rights, and to develop their own institutions.
Protection of Indigenous Knowledge: The declaration protects Indigenous intellectual property, including their traditional knowledge, cultural expressions, and heritage.

Although the declaration is non-binding, meaning it does not create legal obligations for states, it represents a significant moral and political commitment by governments to respect the rights of Indigenous peoples. Many nations have incorporated aspects of the declaration into domestic policies, and it has influenced international law, even if not universally enforced.

The declaration was initially met with resistance from some countries, including the United States, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia, but they later endorsed it, acknowledging its importance in promoting Indigenous rights.

Super Mario Bros. is released in Japan for the NES, which starts the Super Mario series of platforming games.

Super Mario Bros. is a legendary and iconic video game franchise created by Shigeru Miyamoto and developed by Nintendo. It is one of the most influential and successful video game series in the history of the medium. The franchise centers around the adventures of Mario, a plumber who must rescue Princess Peach from the clutches of the evil Bowser, also known as King Koopa, the primary antagonist.

Debut: The first Super Mario Bros. game was released in 1985 for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). It was a critical and commercial success and played a significant role in revitalizing the video game industry after the North American video game crash of 1983.

Gameplay: Super Mario Bros. is a side-scrolling platform game where players control Mario as he navigates various levels, avoiding obstacles, defeating enemies by jumping on them, and collecting power-ups such as Super Mushrooms and Fire Flowers. These power-ups grant Mario special abilities and extra lives.

Characters: Mario is the franchise’s titular character, known for his red cap, mustache, and blue overalls. He is often joined by his younger brother, Luigi, who is a playable character in many games. Princess Peach, Toad, and Yoshi are also recurring characters in the series.

Worlds and Themes: The games are set in the fictional Mushroom Kingdom, and each installment typically features Mario traversing different worlds or regions with unique themes such as grassy plains, underground caves, underwater levels, and fiery castles.

Evolution: Over the years, the series has evolved significantly, with numerous sequels and spin-off titles. It has been released on various Nintendo consoles and handheld systems, including the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES), Nintendo 64, GameCube, Wii, Wii U, Nintendo Switch, and Game Boy, among others.

Impact: Super Mario Bros. has had a profound impact on the video game industry, setting standards for platforming gameplay, level design, and character design. It introduced many gaming conventions, including power-ups, warp zones, and the idea of saving the princess. Mario himself has become one of the most recognizable and beloved characters in gaming history.

Cultural Influence: The franchise has transcended the realm of video games, with Mario appearing in animated series, movies, merchandise, and even theme park attractions like Super Nintendo World.

Notable Titles: Some of the most notable titles in the Super Mario Bros. series include “Super Mario Bros. 3,” “Super Mario World,” “Super Mario 64,” “Super Mario Galaxy,” and “Super Mario Odyssey,” among many others.

Henry Hudson reaches the river that would later be named after him – the Hudson River.

An appeals court orders the University of Mississippi to admit James Meredith, the first African-American student admitted to the segregated university.

The first New York City Marathon is run on 13 September 1970.

The New York City Marathon, often referred to as the NYC Marathon, is one of the world’s most famous and prestigious long-distance road races. It has a rich history dating back to its inaugural running in 1970.

Inaugural Race (1970): The New York City Marathon was first held on September 13, 1970, organized by the New York Road Runners (NYRR), a nonprofit running club founded by Fred Lebow and Ted Corbitt. The race was held entirely within Central Park and had 127 entrants, with only 55 participants completing the race. The first NYC Marathon was a low-key event compared to today’s race.

Growth and Relocation (1976): The race grew in popularity and, in 1976, it expanded beyond Central Park to encompass all five boroughs of New York City: Staten Island, Brooklyn, Queens, the Bronx, and Manhattan. The iconic five-borough course remains the route for the race to this day.

International Competition (1970s-1980s): The 1970s and 1980s saw increased international participation, with elite athletes from around the world joining the race. In 1976, Norwegian runner Grete Waitz won the women’s race, marking the beginning of a legendary career in the marathon. She went on to win the NYC Marathon nine times, becoming one of its most iconic figures.

Marathon Major (2006): The New York City Marathon became one of the six World Marathon Majors in 2006, alongside other prestigious races like the Boston, London, Berlin, Chicago, and Tokyo Marathons. This elevated its status in the world of long-distance running and drew even more elite athletes.

Tragedy and Resilience (2001): The marathon took on a deeper significance in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. The 2001 NYC Marathon was held just two months after the attacks, and it was dedicated to the victims and first responders. The event helped lift the spirits of the city and served as a symbol of resilience.

Record-Setting Performances: Over the years, the NYC Marathon has seen numerous record-setting performances and memorable moments, with world-class athletes achieving remarkable times and overcoming challenges. The course, which includes the challenging climb over the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge at the start, is known for its difficulty.

Charity and Fundraising: The NYC Marathon has a strong philanthropic component, with many participants raising money for various charitable causes. The NYRR offers guaranteed entry to runners who commit to fundraising for approved charities.

Cancellation and Adaptation (2020): The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted the traditional running of the marathon. In 2020, the race was initially canceled, but a virtual version was organized, allowing runners to participate remotely.

Return to Normalcy (2021): In 2021, the New York City Marathon made a triumphant return to its traditional in-person format, with thousands of runners once again taking to the streets of the city.

Super Mario Bros. is released in Japan for the NES, which starts the Super Mario series of platforming games.

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King Louis 16th of France accepts the new constitution.

On June 20th 1789 the newly formed National Assembly gathered in a Versailles tennis court and pledged not to disband until France had a working constitution. Their desire for a constitution was a product of the Enlightenment and the American Revolution. The deputies of the Third Estate believed that any reforms to the Ancien Régime must be outlined in and guaranteed by a written framework. A constitution would define the authority, structure and powers of the new government. This would prevent or limit the abuses and injustices of the old order. The National Assembly set about drafting a national constitution almost immediately. The process was a long and difficult one, hampered by differences of opinion, growing radicalism and the events of 1789-91. Their deliberations eventually produced the Constitution of 1791, which was ratified in September that year. This document established a constitutional monarchy and incorporated several political ideas from the Enlightenment. The fate of the 1791 Constitution, however, hinged on the attitude and actions of King Louis XVI.

Fascination with constitutions and constitutional government was a creature of the Enlightenment. Before the 18th century, monarchical and absolutist governments acted without any form of written constitution. The structures and power of government were shaped and limited by internal forces and events – if they were limited at all. Britain had no written constitution, however, the power of the British monarchy had been constrained by Britain’s nobility, its parliament, the Civil War, the Glorious Revolution and other factors. Over time, the British system developed a balance of power between the monarch, the parliament, the aristocracy and the judiciary. But the idea that political power would sort itself out over time was not acceptable to Enlightenment philosophers. Men like John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu and Thomas Paine believed that government must be founded on rational principles and organised in a way that best serves the people. The best device for ensuring this was a written constitution, a foundation law that defines the structures and powers of government, as well as rules and instructions for its operation.

constitution of 1791
This image shows the Three Estates working together to construct a constitution
The French revolutionaries had before them a working model of a national constitution. The United States Constitution was drafted in 1787 and ratified by the American states the following year. The American constitution embraced and codified several Enlightenment ideas, such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau‘s popular sovereignty and Montesquieu’s separation of powers. There was one significant difference: the American constitution established a republican political system with an elected president as its chief executive. In France, however, the National Constituent Assembly remained wedded to the idea of a constitutional monarchy. The Assembly wanted to retain the king but to ensure that his executive power was subordinate to both the law and the public good. This presented the Assembly with two concerns. First, they had to find a constitutional role for the king and determine what political powers, if any, he should retain. Second, a constitutional monarchy would be entirely dependent on having a king loyal to the constitution. In the years that followed, both caused problems for the national government.

The preparation and drafting of the constitution began on July 6th 1789, when the National Constituent Assembly appointed a preliminary constitutional committee. This committee was made permanent and expanded to 12 men on July 14th, the day of the Bastille raid. Among the members of the constitutional committee were Charles de Talleyrand, Bishop of Autun; the radical Bretonist Isaac le Chapelier; the conservative lawyer Jean-Joseph Mounier; and Emmanuel Sieyès, author of What is the Third Estate? Almost immediately, the constitutional committee cleaved into two factions. One faction favoured a bicameral legislature and the retention of strong executive powers for the king, including an absolute veto. This group, which included Mounier and the Marquis de Lafayette, was dubbed the Monarchiens or ‘English faction’. A second group wanted a strong unicameral legislature and a monarchy with very limited power. This group, led by Sieyès and Talleyrand, won the day in the National Constituent Assembly.

1791 constitution
Louis XVI takes an oath to uphold and respect the Constitution of 1791
By October 1789, the committee was wrestling with the question of exactly who would elect the government. They decided to separate the population into two classes: ‘active citizens’ and ‘passive citizens’. ‘Active citizens’ were males over the age of 25 who paid annual taxes equivalent to at least three days’ wages. This was, in effect, a property qualification on voting rights. In today’s world, where universal suffrage is the norm, this seems grossly unfair – however, property restrictions on voting were quite common in 18th century Europe. Voting was not a natural right conferred on all: it was a privilege available to those who owned property and paid tax. By way of comparison, England in 1780 was a nation of around eight million people, yet only 214,000 people were eligible to vote. The National Constituent Assembly’s property qualifications were considerably more generous than that. They would have extended voting rights to around 4.3 million Frenchmen. Despite this, radicals in the political clubs and sections demanded that voting rights be granted to all men, regardless of earnings or property.

The other feature of the Constitution of 1791 was the revised role of the king. The constitution amended Louis XVI’s title from “King of France” to “King of the French”. This implied that the king’s power emanated from the people and the law, not from divine right or national sovereignty. The king was granted a civil list of 25 million livres, a reduction of around 20 million livres on his spending before the revolution. In terms of executive power, the king retained the right to form a cabinet, to select and appoint ministers. A more pressing question was whether he would have the power to block laws passed by the legislature. Again, this was resolved with debate and compromise. The Monarchiens, most notably Honore Mirabeau, argued for the king to be granted an absolute veto, the executive right to block any legislation. Democratic deputies argued for a more limited veto and some for no veto at all. It was eventually decided to give the king a suspensive veto. He could deny assent to bills and withhold this assent for up to five years. After this time, if assent had not been granted by the king, the Assembly could enact the bill without his approval.

Even as the constitution was being finalised, it was being overtaken by the events of the revolution. In June 1791 the king and his family stole away from the Tuileries and fled Paris; they were detained at Varennes the following morning. The king’s attempt to escape Paris and the revolution brought anti-royalist and republican sentiment to the boil. The National Constituent Assembly tried riding out the storm by claiming the royal family had been abducted and reinstating the king – but the Cordeliers, the radical Jacobins and the sans culottes of Paris were not buying it. The Constitution of 1791 was passed in September but was already fatally compromised by the king’s betrayal. France now had a constitutional monarchy but the monarch, by his actions, had shown no faith in the constitution. In a conversation with the conservative politician Bertrand de Molleville, Louis XVI suggested that he would bring about change by making the new constitution unworkable:

The United Nations General Assembly adopts the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.

The Ulysses probe passes the Sun’s south pole.