Napoleon returns to France from his banishment on Elba.

In 1814, after a decade of near-constant warfare across Europe, Napoleon Bonaparte faced the collapse of his empire. The disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812, followed by defeat at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, weakened his grip on power and emboldened the allied forces of Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia. By early 1814, these forces had invaded France and captured Paris. Under pressure from his marshals and with little political support remaining, Napoleon abdicated the throne in April 1814. Rather than executing or imprisoning him, the Allies chose exile, granting him sovereignty over the small Mediterranean island of Elba.

Elba, located off the coast of Italy between the mainland and Corsica, was a tiny domain compared to the vast empire Napoleon once ruled. Yet the Treaty of Fontainebleau allowed him to retain the title of emperor and gave him control over the island’s administration, along with a small personal guard of about 600 men. Napoleon threw himself into governing Elba with characteristic energy. He reorganized its economy, improved roads, reformed its legal and educational systems, and attempted to revitalize mining and agriculture. Although he was under surveillance by Allied powers, he was not closely confined, and he maintained contact with supporters in France.

Despite these efforts, Napoleon’s exile was short-lived. Political instability in France under King Louis XVIII, combined with fears that the Allies might move him farther away to a more remote location, prompted him to act. In February 1815, he escaped Elba with a small force and sailed back to France, landing near Cannes. His dramatic return marked the beginning of the Hundred Days, a brief restoration of his rule that ended with his final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. This time, the Allies sent him much farther away—to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic—ensuring that his second exile would be permanent.