The 31 March Incident leads to the overthrow of Sultan Abdul Hamid II.

Sultan Abdul Hamid II was the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from 1876 until he was deposed in 1909. His reign was marked by both progress and controversy, and he is a figure of significant historical importance due to his efforts to modernize the empire and his authoritarian governance style.

Born on September 21, 1842, Abdul Hamid II came to power during a period of immense political, economic, and social challenges for the Ottoman Empire. His reign began with the empire in decline, losing territories and influence in Europe and facing internal unrest.

One of his early acts as Sultan was to accept a constitution in 1876, which introduced the first parliamentary system in the empire. However, due to ongoing wars and instability, particularly the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), Abdul Hamid suspended the constitution and parliament just two years later in 1878, ruling as an absolute monarch for the rest of his tenure.

Abdul Hamid II is perhaps best known for his policies of pan-Islamism, aiming to unify and mobilize Muslims under the Ottoman caliphate to counter the expanding influence of European powers. He also heavily invested in infrastructure, including the Hejaz Railway connecting Constantinople (now Istanbul) with the holy city of Mecca.

Despite these efforts, his reign is also criticized for harsh repression, censorship, and the use of secret police to maintain control. His rule witnessed the Armenian massacres of the 1890s, which severely damaged his international reputation.

In 1909, a military coup by the Young Turks forced Abdul Hamid II to abdicate, and he spent the last years of his life under house arrest, passing away in 1918. His legacy is complex, viewed differently across various spectra of Turkish and Middle Eastern history.