British forces launch a costly and unsuccessful night attack against American defenders during the siege of Fort Erie.

The **War of 1812** was fought between the United States and Great Britain from June 1812 until early 1815. The conflict grew out of tensions caused largely by the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, during which Britain imposed restrictions on American trade and frequently stopped American ships at sea. One of the most controversial British practices was **impressment**, in which sailors—including some Americans—were forced into service in the Royal Navy. Many Americans were also angered by British support for Indigenous nations resisting U.S. expansion in the Northwest Territory. These grievances, combined with growing nationalism among American politicians known as the “War Hawks,” led the United States to declare war on Britain on June 18, 1812.

The United States initially hoped that an invasion of British-controlled Canada would bring a quick victory, but early campaigns ended in disappointment. American forces suffered defeats at places such as Detroit and Queenston Heights, while fighting continued around the Great Lakes and along the Canadian border. At sea, the much smaller U.S. Navy achieved several notable victories against individual British warships, boosting American morale. By 1813, American forces had gained important successes, including the **Battle of Lake Erie** and the **Battle of the Thames**, where the Shawnee leader **Tecumseh**, an important British ally, was killed. Despite these victories, neither side was able to achieve a decisive advantage.

The war intensified in 1814 after Napoleon’s defeat in Europe allowed Britain to send additional troops to North America. British forces invaded the Chesapeake region and captured Washington, D.C., in August 1814, burning the **White House, the Capitol, and other government buildings**. Soon afterward, however, the British failed to capture Baltimore. During the bombardment of Fort McHenry, American lawyer **Francis Scott Key** witnessed the U.S. flag still flying over the fort and wrote the poem that later became the lyrics of “The Star-Spangled Banner.” Another major American victory came at the **Battle of New Orleans** in January 1815, when troops commanded by Andrew Jackson defeated a much larger British force. The battle occurred after a peace treaty had been signed in Europe because news of the agreement had not yet reached the armies.

The war formally ended with the **Treaty of Ghent**, signed on December 24, 1814, and ratified by the United States in February 1815. The treaty largely restored conditions to what they had been before the war, with neither Britain nor the United States gaining significant territory. Nevertheless, the conflict had important consequences. In the United States, victories late in the war encouraged a surge of national pride and helped establish Andrew Jackson as a national hero. Britain and the United States gradually developed more peaceful relations, while Canada emerged with a stronger sense of identity after successfully resisting American invasions. Indigenous peoples were among the greatest losers, as the collapse of British support weakened their ability to resist continued American settlement and expansion. Although the War of 1812 produced no clear overall victor, it played an important role in shaping the future of the United States, Canada, and British North America.